Star Lore Art The Manuchihr Globe Description of the Constellations

The following paragraphs describe the constellations shown on the Manuchihr Globe, a celestial Globe manufactured in Persia in 1633. Descriptions are taken directly from the website themanuchihrglobe.tumblr.com. This is meant as a backup of the magnificent work done by themanuchihrglobe.tumblr.com and a way to link the images on my Manuchihr Globe site directly to the descriptions.

The Constellations of the Manuchihr Globe

Andromeda Constellation 20 - al-mar’ah al-musalsalah - The Chained Woman Aratus described Andromeda as having her arms outstretched and bearing bonds or fetters, for according to legend she was bound to a rock as a sacrifice to the sea-monster Cetus, by her parents Cassiopeia and Cepheus, until she was rescued by Perseus, whose figure can be seen beneath Andromeda’s. On the Manuchihr globe she is depicted with her arms outstretched, but with no chains. To the south along her side is the northern of the two fishes comprising the constellation Pisces. Two additional representations of Andromeda are found in al-Ṣūfī manuscripts, in which a fish lies across her feet or across her body. These conceptions are drawn from the Bedouin rather than the Ptolemaic traditions. The constellation contains 24 formed stars including the one which is outside the figure, above the northern hand. The title written near her head reads kawākib al-mar’ah al-musalsalah (the constellation of the chained woman). The star in her head [α And or δ Pegasi; Sirrah] is labeled surrat al-faras (navel of the horse), for it is shared with Pegasus. Rijl al-musalsalah (the foot of the Chained One) is the title given the star in her eastern foot [γ And]. Al-Ṣūfī says it is given this name on astrolabes, and it occurs on Ulugh Beg’s personal copy of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise. The star on her waist near the fish is labeled baṭn al-ḥūt (belly of the fish [β And; Mirach], reflecting the Bedouin image of a large fish. The name was given also to the twenty-eighth lunar mansion. Al-Ṣūfī also called the star, in addition to the two previous names, al-rishā’ (the rope) which is also a name for the twenty-eighth lunar mansion.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Aquarius Constellation 32 - sākib al-ma’ - The Water-Pourer Emilie Savage-Smith says this zodiacal constellation is called by Aratus The Water-Pourer, of which he says that when the sun is in him “the sailor should avoid the open sea, for fierce are the south winds then and hard the frost”. Later mythographers identified him with Deucalion (who reigned when the great flood took place) or Ganymede (cupbearer to the gods), but the simple “water-pourer” is retained in the Ptolemaic catalog. In the Ptolemaic constellation the flow of water streams into the mouth of another constellation, Piscis Austrinus. The title of the constellation reads kawākib sākib al-ma’ (the constellation of the pourer of water), and contains 42 formed stars and three unformed stars. The unformed stars can be seen near the second bend of the stream of water, between the water and the tip of the tail of the sea-monster Cetus. One of the them, directly below the two that lie close together is so tarnished it is difficult to make it out; these three stars are today considered a part of the constellation Cetus.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Aquila Constellation 16 - al-‘uqāb - The Eagle Aratus says that near Cygnus, “another bird tosses in storm, of smaller size but cruel in its rising from the sea when the night is waning, and men call it the Storm-bird”. The later word used was “eagle”. The eagle was interpreted as either that killed by Hercules or the eagle Zeus used to carry Ganymede to Olympus. On the Manuchihr globe the title reads kawākib al-‘uqāb (the constellation of the Eagle), a simple translation of the Greek word for “eagle”. It consists of nine formed stars and six unformed ones, which are south of the celestial equator passing through Aquila, with one in the graduations. The ninth star, in the tail, is labeled dhanab al-‘uqāb (the tail of the eagle).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Auriga Constellation 12 - mumsik al-a‘innah - He who Holds the Rein In the Greek world there were two images given to this area between the Pleiades and the Greater Bear, both described by Aratus. There was seen in the area the charioteer ό ήνίοχος (one who holds the reins) and also the Goat, άίξ, which is said by Aratus to be on his left (western) shoulder, and young goats or kids, ἕριφοι, which were placed on the charioteer’s waist below. The mythological significance of the charioteer and goats is obscure. Hyginus said the figure was called Erichthonis who first invented the four-horse chariot and first established sacrifices to Athena. Cleostratos of Tenedos is said to have first pointed out the kids among the stars. Ptolemy called the constellation ήνίοχος (Heniochus; he who holds the reins) and the third star the goat and the eighth and ninth the kids. The goat and the kids were considered important indicators of weather. The bucolic poet Theocritus said, for example, “fair voyage to Mitylene shall Ageanax have when the Kids stand in the evening sky and the south wind speeds the wet waves, and when Orion stays his feet upon the Ocean”. In Latin literature the constellation was called Auriga. In the Islamic world the Greek conception of the charioteer and the goats was quite accurately transported, unchanged, into the Arabic culture. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib mumsik al-a‘innah (the constellation of him who holds the reins). Thirteen stars are shown on the Manuchihr globe as being in the constellation Auriga. Ptolemy cataloged 14 stars in this constellation; al-Ṣūfī, however, omitted the fourteenth star of Ptolemy’s listing, with the observation that he was not able to observe it. In this, al-Ṣūfī was followed by Ulugh Beg five centuries later. The large star on the eastern shoulder is labeled mankib dhī al-‘innān (the shoulder having the rein [β Aurigae]), from which we get the modern name Menkalinan. The large star on the western shoulder is labeled ‘ayyūq [α Aur] and is Capella, the sixth brightest star in the heavens. The meaning of the Arabic word is not clear. The usual meaning of the Arabic root is “to delay” or “to impede”. It has been suggested that it is derived from a Babylonian word iqu (goat), and that perhaps this word is the source for both the Greek word άίξ and the Arabic ‘ayyūq. The anwā’ author Ibn Qutaybah says that ‘ayyūq is behind al-thurayyā (the Pleiades) on the right side of the Milky Way, and “it is a whiter, brighter, and more brilliant star and is located much closer to the Pole than the Pleiades”. Al-Ṣūfī also called Capella rāqib al-thurayyā (guardian of the Pleiades), since in many locations it rose at the same time.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Ara Constellation 46 - al-mijmarah - The Censer This constellation, which hangs in the sky immediately beneath the tail of Scorpio between Lupus and Sagittarius, is the only one about which there is no Bedouin tradition: that is, the seven stars comprising the constellation do not seem to have been recognized in the Arab world before the introduction of Greek astronomy. In the Greek world the constellation, although a very small one, seems to have been an important one, for Aratus devoted an unusual amount of space to it in his poem, where he discusses the implications for storms and winds at sea which the sighting of these stars can have for the sailor under various conditions. Aratus, pseudo-Eratosthenes, Cicero, Manilius, and Hyginus clearly viewed the form of the constellation as a sacrificial altar, calling it a θυτήριον in Greek or Ara in Latin. Hyginus gives the legend that the gods first made offerings and formed an alliance to oppose the Titans on this altar which had been made by the Cyclopes. Some add that the fire was covered so that the Titans could not see the power of the thunderbolt. Hyginus has only four stars in the constellation. On the other hand, Eudoxus, Hipparchus Geminus, and Ptolemy thought of the constellation as a censer or vessel for burning incense, calling it θυμιατήριον in Greek and Thuribulum in Latin. It is this latter tradition which dominated in the Islamic world where the constellation is called al-mijmarah (the incense burner); and it is depicted as a censer upside down with the flames going toward the southwest. The constellation is labeled kawākib al-mijmarah. No stars in the constellation on the Manuchihr globe bear individual names nor do they in the texts of al-Ṣūfī or the catalog of Ulugh Beg. Al-Ṣūfī states that the Arabs, meaning the Bedouins, say nothing about these stars. Yet in his enumeration of the stars al-Ṣūfī says that behind the second star of the constellation (the large star toward the east side of the base of the censer) there is a star not mentioned by Ptolemy of the fourth magnitude, which is actually doubled because right near it is a star of the sixth magnitude; moreover, he says that between this star and the second star of the constellation is another star of fifth magnitude not mentioned by Ptolemy. Such comments, which by his own statement could not have been drawn from the anwā’ tradition, in addition to his constant correction of Ptolemy’s magnitudes and coordinates, strongly suggest that al-Ṣūfī actually tried to observe many of the stars himself.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Argo Navis Constellation 40 - al-safīnah - The Ship According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus described the constellation as being the ship Argo belonging to the legendary Jason, who sailed in it with the Argonauts from Iolchis in Thessaly to Colchis at the farthest end of the Black Sea to seek for the Golden Fleece; when the voyage was over the ship was placed in the heavens by Athena. The constellation of Argo sails with its stern foremost or backwards. Aratus says: For not hers is the proper course of a ship in motion, but she is borne backwards, reversed even as real ships, when already the sailors turn the stern to the land as they enter the haven, and every one backpaddles the ship, but she rushing sternward lays hold of the shore The high-curving stern, which lies very close to the tail of Canis Major, was called by Ptolemy χηνίσκος, the usual term for such sterns of Greek ships, since they frequently turned up like a goose’s neck (χἡν)- The ship had one mast and two rudders or long steering oars. The prow of early Greek ships of war was formed by a low beak or ram, ἕμβολος, which projected from the keel and which was driven into hostile ships. It was not until later that the prow rose as high as the stern. Thus the older style ship may have given rise to the notion of its being a ship cut in half, as Ptolemy seems to indicate in his placement of the stars in his catalog when he speaks of the cutting off of the deck. In the Islamic world this constellation was called ṣūrat al-safīnah (the constellation of the ship), or kawākib al-safīnah as it is written on the Manuchihr globe. It was considered to have 45 formed stars and no unformed ones. It was mentioned as early as Aratus as well as by al-Ṣūfī that the Milky Way passed through part of the stern of the ship. The area covered by the classical constellation of Argo Navis is today most frequently divided into four constellations: Carina (the keel), Puppis (the stern), Vela (the sail), and Pyxis (the mariner’s compass). The large star in the lower rudder is the second brightest star in the heavens [α Carinae]. Ptolemy gave it the name κἁνωβος, as had his predecessors Hipparchus and Eratosthenes. The word κἁνωβος, which the modern name Canopus transliterates, was given to the star, according to legend, from the name of the chief pilot of the fleet of Menelaus, who while returning from the Trojan War stopped at Egypt. The pilot died a few miles from Alexandria, where a monument was built in his honor, a city named for him, and this star named after him. Eratosthenes also called the star περἱγειος (along the earth). The Arabic word for Canopus, as can be seen on the globe, is suhayl, which comes from a root having to do with a flat ground or a plain. It should be remembered that the star is very noticeable, being the second brightest in the heavens, and can be seen close to the horizon in the lower latitudes (it is not visible north of the thirty-seventh parallel), thus perhaps giving rise to a term serving as a common source for all the names associated with the earth that have been given to it. Another indigenous Arab word for Canopus used by other author is al-faḥl (the male camel). Ibn Qutaybah cites a verse using this term and adds afterwards that the poet “compared it to a male camel who is no longer able to mate and has isolated himself [from the rest of the camels]”.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Aries Constellation 22 - al-ḥamal - The Ram According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aries (the Ram) is the first of the zodiacal signs, having been at one time the sign in which the vernal equinox occurred. Aratus placed the Ram near Andromeda and the Triangle. This is the legendary Ram that bore the golden fleece, the object of the Argonaut’s quest; it was the Ram that carried Phrixus and Helen through the Hellespont. The Ram was sacrificed to Zeus, who placed it among the heavens, though others say that the ram gave its golden fleece to Phrixus as a memorial and then passed up to the heavens of its own accord. Hyginus adds the story that when Dionysus attacked Africa the army found themselves without water, a ram showed them the way to water, for which reason Dionysus placed the ram in the heavens so that when the sun was in that constellation all living things would be refreshed and so that it would be the chief of all the signs since it had been the best leader of his army. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-ḥamal (the constellation of the young ram). The constellation consists of 13 formed stars and 5 unformed ones. Of the unformed, four are in a group over the rump and one is on top the head. Three stars are labeled, all reflecting traditional Arab imagery. Of the two stars very close together in the horns, the one closest to the outside of the horns [β Arietis] is called muqaddam al-sharaṭayn (the anterior one of the two signals). The second star of the pair in the horns [γ Arietis] is labeled al-mu’akhkhar (the posterior) instead for mu’akhkhar al-sharatayn (the posterior of the two signals). The name al-sharaṭayn (the two signals) is the name of the first lunar mansion, which derived originally from these two stars. The large star at the top of the head, the first of the unformed stars, is labeled al-nāṭiḥ (that which butts or gores). This is α Arietis, whose modern name Hamal derives from the word for ram used for the entire constellation. Al-Ṣūfī used al-nāṭiḥ for a star name, while most of the writers in the Arabic world used it as another name for the first lunar mansion; says Emilie Savage-Smith.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Boötes Constellation 5 - al-‘awwā’ - The Howler, that is, the Ox-Driver The constellation on the Manuchihr globe is labeled kawākib al-‘awwā’ (the constellation of the Howler), which is the usual Arab designation, and is derived from a misunderstanding of the word βοώτης (the ploughman) as reading βοητης (the howler or shouter). The constellation consists of 22 internal stars, one of which it shares with Hercules (the one at the tip of the sword). Only two stars of this constellation are named on the Manuchihr globe. Both star names seem to reflect the Bedouin image of a lancer, or at least an armed form, rather than a “howler” or an ox-driver derived from Greek tradition. On the forward leg one of the three stars is named mufrad al-rāmiḥ (the solitary [star] of the lancer). The star is given this title in the illustrations to Ulugh Beg’s copy of al-Ṣūfī but al-Ṣūfī himself calls it rumḥ (the lance), as do most other writers. The second labeled star in Boötes is the very large one beneath the hem of the tunic, the first unformed star of the constellation. This is α Boötis or Arcturus. The precise meaning of the Arabic name for this star, simāk al-rāmiḥ, is difficult to determine. The word simāk occurs for a star in Virgo, which gave its name to the fourteenth lunar mansion. The word simāk is perhaps of Babylonian origin, but its meaning is so obscure that it cannot be translated. The word al-rāmiḥ usually acts as an adjective meaning “armed” or “fighting”, and so we have a lance-bearing or fighting simāk.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Cancer Constellation 25 - al-saraṭān - The Crab According to Emilie Savage-Smith, in the Hellenistic world this constellation, the most inconspicuous of all zodiacal signs, was usually called καρκἱνος (a crab), latinized as Cancer. Aratus calls it not only καρκἱνος, but the manger or crib (φἀτνη) between two asses. This image of the crib and asses was common in later poetry. Theocritus says “the clouds disperse this way and that, the bears are seen again, and between the asses the dim crib, betokening that all is fair for voyaging”. Mythographers said that Dionysus placed the two asses in the heavens for they had helped him flee across a swamp to a temple in order to restore his sanity. Another story says that the two asses brayed so loudly when Zeus was fighting the Giants, that the Giants took flight and were defeated. The crab was explained as being one which had snapped at the foot of Heracles (Hercules) from the swamp when he fought the Lernacan Hydra. Ptolemy named the constellation Cancer and noted that its first star was nebulous and called the crib latinized as Praesepe. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-saraṭān (the constellation of the crab), and consists of nine formed stars and four unformed ones, the latter being the two above the head and the two near the southern claw. The three stars in a row across the breast of the crab bear names derived from Greek concepts of the constellation. The middle star of these three is the open cluster and is labeled al-ma‘laf (a manger, or stable [M44, Praesepe]), as termed by al-Ṣūfī. The two stars on either side of the Manger [γδ Cancri], were called by Aratus and Ptolemy “asses”. Al-Ṣūfī also termed the two stars al-himārayn (the two asses). Thus on the globe they are labeled al-ḥimār al-shimālī (the northern ass) and al-ḥimār al-janūbī (the northern ass) respectively.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Canis Major Constellation 38 - al-kalb al-akbar - The Greater Dog The brightest star in this constellation, which is the brightest in all the sky, was mentioned by Homer and called by the name σέιριος (the scorcher). The later Latin name was Sirius. It was said of the star that it was “a baleful sign for it brings to suffering mortals much fiery heat”, for when it rises with the sun it marks the season of greatest heat. Homer mentioned also that it was the star men call the Dog of Orion. Hesiod speaks of Sirius when he says: In the exhausting season of summer; then is when goats are at their fattest, when the wine tastes best, women are most lascivious, but the men’s strength fails them most, for the star Sirius shrivels them, knees and heads alike, and the skin is all dried out in the heat. By the time of Aratus this star “that keenest of all blazes with a searing flame” was seen as part of a constellation and marked the jaw of the Dog, which was the faithful hound of the Hunter Orion. The star is still called the dog-star and the days of greatest heat the dog-days. In the Islamic world the Ptolemaic constellation was called al-kalb al-akbar (the Greater Dog). The constellation of Canis Major is comprised of 18 formed stars and 11 unformed ones. On the Manuchihr globe i is labeled kawākib al-kalb al-akbar (the constellation of the Greater Dog). The large star on the upper front paw is labeled al-mirzam and is β Canis Majoris (Almirzam or Murzim). Al-Ṣūfī says of it, “it is a constellation of a dog behind the constellation of al-jawzā’ (a figure in the area of Orion) and the constellation of the Hare, for which reason it is called kalb al-jabbār (the dog of the giant, Orion). In his catalog, al-Ṣūfī says that the brilliant star in the jaw, Sirius, is called al-kalb (the dog), following Ptolemy. In his discourse on the constellation al-Ṣūfī presents the traditional Bedouin imagery for this region in which two Sirii were seen. The traditional Arabic word used for α Canis Majoris was shi‘rā, which apparently comes from a source, probably Babylonian, that it shared in common with the Greek term σέιριος. In Arabic the word has little meaning that seems appropriate, except perhaps as interpreted as “to have a distinctive mark”, i.e. to be distinctive, or possibly shaggy, unkemp hair, which Drechsler suggests could apply to the radiant appearance of Sirius. On the Manuchihr globe Sirius is labeled shi‘rā al-yamānī (the Yemenite [southern] Sirius).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Canis Minor Constellation 39 - al-kalb al-aṣghar - The Lesser Dog The constellation of Canis Minor consists of only two formed stars and is placed beneath Gemini and Cancer, which can be seen to the north. The dog lying north of the celestial equator, like the greater dog that is directly south of the equator, follows the constellation of Orion and was considered one of the hunter’s companions. In the Homeric literature neither this constellation nor either of its stars is mentioned, while Aratus refers only to the larger of the two stars, calling it προκὐων, which shines brightly beneath the twins; the name literally means “before the dog” and refers to the fact that this star rises before the dog-star Sirius in Canis Major. The Greek word is the source of the modern name of the star Procyon. By the time of Ptolemy the star had, with the nearby star, become part of a recognized constellation, itself having the form of a dog. In the Islamic world the constellation was commonly given the name al-kalb al-aṣghar (the lesser dog) from the Ptolemaic conception of the constellation. On the Manuchihr globe it is labeled kawākib al-kalb al-aṣghar (the constellation of the Lesser Dog). The Arabic terminology for the two stars reflects the earlier traditional Bedouin ideas of the heavens. The larger star, Procyon, the eighth brightest of the sky, is labeled shi‘rā al-Shāmī (the Levantine [northern] Sirius). The smaller star in the neck of the dog is labeled al-mirzam [β Canis Minoris]. This is one of two stars labeled al-mirzam, probably meaning companion, the other one being in Canis Major.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Capricornus Constellation 31 - al-jadī - The Goat The tenth zodiacal sign, Capricorn, is also unquestionably of Babylonian origin; says Emilie Savage-Smith. It was seen originally as a sea-goat, most often drawn with the tail of a fish. In Greek it was called Horned Goat, and according to one Greek legend was the Cretan goat-nymph named Amaltheia who reared Zeus in the cave of Dicte on the Aegean Hill. Others say it was Aegipan who had cared for Zeus. He was said to have frightened the Titans by his braying. The lower part of his body is shaped as a fish since he hurled shellfish, instead of stones, against his enemy. Mythographers also said he was Pan whom Egyptian priests had said threw himself into a river thereby making the lower part of his body a fish while the rest of his body remained a goat. In this way he escaped the monster Typhon, and Zeus, admiring his cunning, placed him among the constellations. In the Islamic world it was called al-jadī (the goat), a name which he bears in the title of the constellation (kawākib al-jadī) and also as the title of the House of Capricorn (burj al-jadī) along the ecliptic. Al-Bīrūnī criticizes the use of this word for the constellation since it literally means a kid or young goat, suggesting instead the word tays (adult male goat). Nonetheless, the former is the usual title of the constellation. Capricorn is comprised of 28 formed stars. On the Manuchihr globe the brightest of the two, considered to be of third magnitude (the one closest to the tail; δ Cap), is labeled dhanab al-jadī (the tail of the goat). The two stars in its head, the one at the base of the inside horn and the larger one below the three on the horns, both considered of less than third magnitude, gave their names to the twenty-second lunar mansion. These two [α1,2, β Capricorni] were called sa‘d al-dhābiḥ, the meaning of which, as with all the sa‘d lunar mansions, has become so obscure with time that it is virtually impossible to translate it. A very rough translation might be “the omen of sacrifice”.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Cassiopeia Constellation 10 - dhāt al-kursī - The Lady with a Chair Aratus (lines 188-196) identifies this group with Cassiopeia, the wife of Cepheus, who stands behind her toward the north. He also says the stars (the well-known W-shape) resemble “the key of a twofold door barred within, wherewith men striking shoot back the bolts”. A Greek tradition that developed by the time of Ptolemy drew her as a queen sitting on a throne with her arm outstretched toward her daughter Andromeda, whose foot can be seen above her open hand. The legend goes that Cassiopeia boasted she was fairer than the sea nymphs, the Nereides, for which brashness Poseidon sent a flood and a sea monster (Cetus) to ravage the coast of her realm in Ethiopia. The only way in which Cepheus and Cassiopeia could rid their realm of the sea monster was to sacrifice their daughter Andromeda to the monster. Their subjects thus compelled them to chain her to a rock to be devoured. She was later rescued by Perseus, who can be seen as a constellation south of Cassiopeia’s legs. Cassiopeia, however, was banished by Poseidon to the sky, but so near the Pole Star that she hangs downward half the year as a lesson in humility. In the Arabic world her name was not transliterated into Arabic, but was lost completely. She is simply called the lady with the chair (dhāt al-kursī). On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-kursī (constellation of the Chair) behind a man sitting on a chair. The constellation consists of 13 formed stars. Over his forward leg is written rukbat al-kursi (the knee of the chair). The large star on his raised elbow [β Cas] is labeled al-kaff al-khaḍib (the dyed hand), that is, a hand dyed with henna, a red dye made from Lawsonia inermis.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Centaurus Constellation 44 - al-Qinṭūrus - Centaurus According to Emilie Savage-Smith, in the Greek conception of the sky this constellation is the second centaur, the other being Sagittarius who was half human and half horse. This centaur was called by Aratus and later Hipparchus and Ptolemy, simply κένταυρος (the centaur). Aratus says the constellation of Centaurus is placed beneath Scorpio and the Claws (Libra), but Hipparchus corrects him by saying that the constellation is nearly all under Virgo, which is north of Hydra and Corvus seen above his head. Aratus also mentions that in his right hand he grasps a wild-beast. This animal was variously interpreted as several different wild animals, and even at times confused with the constellation of the Hare or Cetus the sea-monster, but most frequently he was regarded as a wolf; it can be interpreted as representing another type of darkness. Writers subsequent to Aratus stated that the Centaur carried in his other hand a thyrsus or wand carried by devotees of Dionysus (Bacchus), which was a phallic symbol consisting of a stick wreathed in ivy and vine leaves with a pine cone on top. The Greek legend most frequently associated with Centaurus was that of the wise Cheiron who reared and taught Asclepius and Achilles and surpassed all other centaurs and men injustice. The scholiasts of Aratus, Germanicus, and the author of the pseudo-Eratosthenes Catasterismi even called the constellation Cheiron. Others associated it with Pholus, the most skilled of all centaurs in augury and hence say that it is approaching the altar (the constellation Ara seen in front of him) with a sacrificial victim (the wild beast). On the Manuchihr globe the centaur holds some vine leaves in one hand and a lion in the other (the forty-fifth constellation Lupus). In the Arabic world the constellation of the centaur was called al-qinṭūrus, a transliteration of the Greek word for centaur. The figure is titled over his back kawākib al-qinṭūrus (the constellation of the centaur). Al-Ṣūfī explains that it is an animal whose foresection is that of a man and whose back quarter is that of a horse. He called the object he carried the qaḍīb al-karm (the rod of the vine). Al-Ṣūfī adds, “Ptolemy said there are 37 stars, but there are 36 stars, the thirtieth being incorrect”. Further on al-Ṣūfī gives the coordinates of the thirtieth star as given in the Almagest, but adding “but there is no star there which vision can perceive”. Nonetheless, al-Ṣūfī left it in his catalog that followed at the end of his discussion, and five centuries later Ulugh Beg also kept it in his catalog although noting, as had al-Ṣūfī, that it could not be observed. There are no unformed stars of Centaurus, the one under the belly being counted as formed. On the Manuchihr globe the only star labeled is the thirty-fifth star of the constellation [α Cen] labeled rijl al-qinṭūrus (the foot of the centaur). This star is the third brightest in the firmament and the nearest to us. Its name today is Rigil Kent, obviously derived from the Arabic title.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Cepheus Constellation 4 - qīfā’us - Cepheus In the Greek world Cepheus was the name of four or five mythological figures, of which perhaps the best known was the king of Ethiopia and the husband of Cassiopeia, whom he faces as a constellation. Aratus says he is located in the area near Cynosura, the Lesser Bear, which is below his feet. Hipparchus, however, criticizes Aratus for having the size of the constellation too large. In classical descriptions of the constellations, Cepheus was the only bearded person, indicating that he was a foreign king. On the Manuchihr globe the title is written near his face, kawākib qīqā’us or qīfā’us (the constellation of Cepheus), the latter being a transliteration of the Greek Κηφεύς (Cepheus). The star on his forward foot, the second star of the constellation [γ Cephei], is labelled al-rā‘ī (the shepherd). The name reflects an older indigenous Arabic tradition of a shepherd, his dog, and his flock, rather than the Ptolemaic tradition of a human figure. The constellation has 13 stars.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Cetus Constellation 34 - al-qītus - Cetus Savage-Smith says the southern constellations (those south of the ecliptic) represent for the most part signs of darkness, evil spirits, and toil that populate the vast ocean or deep into which the heavenly bodies sink and through which sailors must struggle. The first southern constellation was called by Aratus “the mighty sea-monster”, “the hated sea-monster”, and “the dark-blue Cetus”, Cetus being the Latin transliteration of the Greek κἡτος. Aristotle used the word for any animal of the whale kind, “whales dolphin and all spouting cetacea”. Mythographers associated the sea-monster with the monster sent by Poseidon to kill Andromeda. The constellations of Andromeda and Perseus who saved her are due north of the constellation Cetus, whose head is just south of the Ram, Aries. Thus his head is north of the equator. In the Islamic world the Ptolemaic constellation was called al-qītus, a transliteration of the Greek name. In the Greek world the constellation was most frequently seen as a whale, while in the Islamic world it was often depicted like a “senmurvs,” an oriental winged dragon, and almost always shown wearing a collar. On the Manuchihr globe it has a dog’s head, two claw feet, and a feathered fish tail. The constellation is labeled kawākib al-qītus and consists of 22 formed stars, including the one in the hair, next to the leg of Aries, and also the four on the chest, which are shared with the River (Eridanus). The star on the northern tip of the tail, closest to the equator, is titled dhanab al-qītus (the tail of Cetus [ι Cet]). The star name reflects the Ptolemaic schema and it is called today Deneb Kaitos, derived from this Arabic title. The title of the star on the southern part of the tail is al-ḍafda‘ al-thānī (the second frog [β Cet]). The star is given the name in the Bedouin tradition and known today as Diphda. In the Bedouin tradition, the first six stars of the constellation in the head and the neck, not including the one in the hair, were collectively called al-kaff al-jadhmā’ (the cut-off hand [of al-thurayyā]) and is labeled on the Manuchihr globe. This group of stars was seen as part of the human form of which the Pleiades (called al-thurayyā) formed the center.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Corona Australis Constellation 47 - al-iklīl al-janūbī - The Southern Crown The decorative device to the east of the censer [Ara] on the Manuchihr globe lies between the front legs of Sagittarius. It is labeled kawākib al-iklīl, which refers to al-iklīl al-janūbī (the Southern Crown), an Arabic translation of the Greek στέφανος νότιος, used by Ptolemy and Geminus before him. According to Emilie Savage-Smith, neither Hipparchus nor Aratus used the term στέφανος, but the constellation may have been referred to by Aratus by the phrase “the stars turned in a circled ring”. Al-Ṣūfī says the Arabs differed on the constellation: some called it udḥī al-na‘ām (the nesting place of the ostriches), with obvious reference to the ostriches seen in Sagittarius; others called it al-qubbah (the tent); and still others saw it as part of the Scorpion’s tail. The southern crown consisted of 13 formed stars. No stars in this constellation are labeled on the Manuchihr globe.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Corona Borealis Constellation 6 - al-fakkah - The Crown To the west of Draco, between the two figures of Hercules and Boötes are two concentric circles representing the constellation of the Northern Crown. Aratus called it “wreath or garland, which glorious Dionysus set to be a memorial of the dead Ariadne”. The etymology of the more common Arabic name al-fakkah, engraved on the Manuchihr globe above inside ring, is puzzling. The basic root of the word means “to break” or “to release”. There is a break or gap between the two northernmost stars [πι Coronae Borealis] of the ring. The word al-fakkah may refer to this break. The largest and brightest star of the constellation [α CrB, Alphecca], the fourth star counting from the southern side of the gap, is labeled, within the inner ring, munīr al-fakkah (the brilliant star of al-fakkah). Al-Ṣūfī calls it al-munīr min al-fakkah.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Corvus Constellation 43 - al-ghurāb - The Raven A figure of a raven, κόραζ in Greek, was described by Aratus and later writers as seeming to peck at the Hydra. According to the mythographers the Raven, who was a servant of Apollo, was placed in the skies along with the Jar and the Snake as punishment for having lied to Apollo when he blamed the snake for his delay in fetching water instead of admitting he had tarried to wait for a fig tree to ripen. In the Arabic world the Ptolemaic constellation was translated as al-ghurāb (the raven). The constellation of Corvus consists of seven formed stars and no unformed. On the Manuchihr globe it is labeled kawākib al-ghurāb (the constellation of the Raven). The names given the individual stars in the constellation all reflect the Greek-Ptolemaic conception of the asterism as translated into Arabic. The star in the bill of the raven is labeled minqār al-ghurāb (the bill of the raven) and is the first star of the constellation [α Corvi]. The fourth star, the one on the wing closest to the jar (Crater) is labeled jināḥ al-ghurāb [al-ayman] (the [right] wing of the raven [γ Corvi]). This star is today called Gienah from the Arabic word for wing. The larger and anterior star of the two unlabeled on the other wing, is termed jināḥ al-ghurāb al-aysar (the left wing of the raven). This star, δ Corvi, is today called Algorab from the Arabic word for raven. In the Bedouin tradition according to al-Ṣūfī the stars comprising this constellation were called al-khibā’ (the tent) and al-ajmāl (the camels). They were also called ‘arsh al-simāk al-a‘zal (the throne or pavillion of the unarmed simāk), which is a reference to the large star Spica in Virgo. This star in Virgo was viewed as one of the back legs of a large lion by the early Arabs. Spica can be seen in the hand of Virgo to the north of the tail of Corvus. The stars were also called ‘ajz al-asad (the buttocks of the lion). Al-Ṣūfī adds that it is asserted that sometimes the moon falls short and so resides with ‘ajz al-asad—that is, that sometimes it is a lunar mansion.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Crater Constellation 42 - al-bāṭiyah - The Jar Emilie Savage-Smith says: Aratus mentions that on the back of Hydra there is κρατήρ, a large bowl or vessel in which wine was mixed with water and from which the cups were filled. In some Greek writings, such as the histories of Polybius the word is used for a mouth of a volcano. Thus the latinized form of the word, Crater, has generally the latter connotation in English and not the early idea of a large earthenware bowl or vessel, which is intended in the name of the constellation. The constellation of Crater is inseparably bound with the raven (Corvus) and Hydra, both in its ultimate Babylonian origin and in most later Greek legends associated with it. One legend connects Crater with the cup of Ikarios to whom Dionysus gave the vine and who was translated into the skies as the constellation Boötes. In the Islamic world κρατήρ was translated as bāṭiyah (a jar). On the Manuchihr globe the decorative vessel is titled kawākib al-bāṭiyah (the constellation of the jar). None of the seven formed stars comprising the constellation are given individual names. The traditional Bedouin term for this circular group of stars was al-ma‘laf (the manger) and was associated with the nearby stars of Hydra, which were called “horses” and “colts”.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Delphinus Constellation 17 - al-dalfīn - The Dolphin Aratus speaks of “the Dolphin with few bright stars and body wreathed in mist, but four brilliants adorn him, set side by side in pairs”. One legend has it that the dolphin was placed in the heavens by Poseidon as a reward for persuading Amphitrite to marry Poseidon. Others say it is the dolphin who bore Arion the citharist (a poet of the late seventh century BC) to shore safely when servants wishing to kill him threw him overboard. The Arabic name of the constellation, written under the head, kawākib al-dalfīn (constellation of the Dolphin), a transliteration of the later Greek form of the word for dolphin. The constellation contains 10 formed stars, of which only one is named on the Manuchihr globe—the largest of the three in the tail, labeled dhanab al-dalfīn (tail of the dolphin [ε Delphini])

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Draco Constellation 3 - al-tinnīn - The Dragon Draco was not one of the star groups mentioned by Homer. Aratus says the dragon winds between the two bears like a branch of a river. Its head is under the foot of the Kneeler (Hercules) and it coils about the pole of the ecliptic, to which the great circles dividing the ecliptic into 12 houses can be seen converging. With the introduction of Ptolemaic astronomy into the Islamic world, the concept of the dragon was quite literally transferred into this region, overlaying the earlier Bedouin tradition. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-tinnīn (the constellation of the Dragon). The large star behind the eye is labeled ra’s al-tinnīn (head of the dragon [γ Draconis, Eltanin]). The name of a star on the tongue reflects the early Bedouin tradition of camels and hyenas. The star [μ Dra, Alrakis] is labeled al-rāqiṣ (the ambling [camel]) as it reads in the text of al-Ṣūfī. Along the spine of the back at the tip of the tongue there reads al-dhīkh (the manlike hyena), which refers to the second star to the south of the wolf [ι Dra, Idasich]. According to Ptolemy the dragon consisted of 31 internal stars. The Manuchihr globe also shows 31 stars in this constellation.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Equuleus Constellation 18 - qiṭ‘at al-faras - Part of a Horse The constellation having the form of a head of a horse is not mentioned by Aratus. It is called by Geminus and Ptolemy “the front part of a horse”. It can be seen immediately above the Dolphin. On the Menuchihr globe it is labeled qiṭ‘at al-faras (the part of a horse). Al-Bīrūnī calls it “the first horse” in reference to Pegasus, whose head can be seen next to this constellation. Equuleus is composed of four obscure stars, none of which are given individual names.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Eridanus Constellation 36 - al-nahr - The River According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus was the first to name this winding constellation that has the form of a river, speaking of the poor remains of Eridanus as a river swollen with tears. The legend referred to is that of the river Po, into which Phaethon fell when struck by Zeus’s thunderbolt and where his sisters the Heliades wept for him. The river Eridanus was partly burnt up, hence the “poor remains”. Eudoxus had called it simply “river”, and later writers associated it with the Rhone or the Rhine and even the Nile and Oceanus. The river twists from the forward foot of Orion over to Cetus the Sea-Monster, where it shares four stars; it turns toward Lepus the Hare and then back under the feet of Cetus. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is titled kawākib al-nahr (the constellation of the River). The constellation is composed of 34 formed stars, not including the 4 shared with Cetus. There are no unformed stars. The only star labeled is the one at the end of the river, beneath the feet of Cetus. This star is labeled ākhir al-nahr (the end of the river [θ Eridani, Acamar]). This is not the star bearing today the name Achernar [α Eridani], the ninth brightest star of the heavens.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Gemini Constellation 24 - Al-Taw’amayn - The Twins According to Emilie Savage-Smith, the twins, which Aratus called δίδυμοι, were identified by later mythographers with various pairs including Apollo and Heracles, and Castor and Pollux. The latter were the most affectionate of all brothers and were placed in the heavens as a record of unselfish friendship. The myth of Castor and Pollux gave rise to the modern names for the two most prominent stars in the constellation. The twins were described in Greek literature as one having his arms around the other, as they appear on the Manuchihr globe. The constellation of the twins seems to go back to Babylonian texts. The constellation on the Manuchihr globe is titled kawākib al-taw’amayn (the constellation of the twins). Al-Ṣūfī employed the name al-taw’amayn (the two twins) for the constellation instead for al-jawzā’. This name is the Arabic translation of the Ptolemaic δίδυμοι (twins). However, later astronomers returned to the early Bedouin name for the region (al-jawzā’) for the name of the constellation as well as the corresponding zodiacal house. The meaning of al-jawzā’ is somewhat obscure and probably comes from a root meaning “pair” and is the traditional Bedouin name for the region, as al-Biruni notes. The name al-jawzā’ possibly referred to a large feminine figure envisioned in this region of the heavens in pre-Islamic Arabia. Gemini is composed of 18 formed stars and seven unformed ones. Of the unformed ones. Over the head of the westernmost twin reads the label ra’s al-taw’am al-muqaddam (the head of the foremost twin), referring to the first star, the one in the forehead [α Geminorum, Castor]. The star in the face of the eastern twin is labeled ra’s al-taw’am al-mu’akhkhar (the head of the rear twin), the second star of the constellation [β Gem, Pollux]. Both labels reflect the Ptolemaic constellation image. Moreover, each of the two stars in the two feet of the eastern twin [γξ Gem] is labeled with the Bedouin name min al-han‘ah (of al-han‘ah). This term is also the name of the sixth lunar mansion and gave rise to the modern name for the star γ Gem, Alhena.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Hercules Constellation 7 - al-jāthī - The Kneeling Man The position of Hercules is upside-down, kneeling on his rearmost (western) knee, with his foot stepping on the head of Draco; he is head to head with the serpent bearer, Serpentarius. In the Arabic tradition he is usually called simply al-jāthī (the kneeling man) from the form of the Greek constellation, although al-Ṣūfī adds that he was also called al-rāqiṣ (the dancer). When Aratus wrote his poem in the third century BC the attribution of Hercules to the constellation had not been made. Aratus says “that sign no man knows how to read clearly, nor on what task he is bent, but men simply call him On His Knees”. The Arabic title for the constellation engraved on the Manuchihr globe, kawākib al-jāthī (constellation of the kneeling man), literally translates the older Greek title. The constellation is composed of 29 formed stars and one unformed star above the raised upper shoulder. Al-Ṣūfī numbers them 1 unformed, 28 formed, and 1 unnumbered formed star on the back foot, which it shares with Boötes. The only star labeled on the Manuchihr globe is the one in the head, which is called ra’s al-jāthī (the head of the kneeling man [α Herculis]).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Hydra Constellation 41 - al-shujā‘ - The Serpent According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus calls this constellation Hydra (Water-Serpent), whose head is beneath the middle of the crab, its coil below the lion (Leo), and its tail above the centaur. About midway in its form is set the constellation of the jar (Crater) and close to the end of the tail is the form of a raven (Corvus) which appears to peck at the Hydra. The asterism of a serpent with a bowl and raven may possibly be of Babylonian origin and it has been suggested that the serpent and the raven are symbols of darkness and evil, with the huge jar symbolizing the “vault of heaven wherein at times storm, wind, clouds and rain are chaotically mixed”. Greek mythographers identified the Hydra as being the Lernaean hydra of the Hercules legend. The raven was said to be a servant of Apollo who was sent to fetch a cup of pure water for a sacrifice; the raven encountered a fig-tree en route and waited for the figs to ripen; when he returned to Apollo he brought a snake saying the snake had prevented him from getting the water from the spring. Apollo punished the bird so that when the figs are ripe, it cannot drink water. The constellations were placed, according to Hyginus, so that the crow seems to peck at the serpent to be allowed to go over to the bowl of water. In Arabic Hydra is called al-shujā‘ (the large snake or serpent). On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is titled kawākib al-shujā‘ (the constellation of the Serpent), and is composed of 25 formed stars and 2 unformed ones. A star is labeled ‘unq al-shujā‘, as called by al-Ṣūfī who says that the name is written on astrolabes.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Leo Constellation 26 - al-asad - The Lion Aratus associated the Lion with the sun’s hottest path. Greek mythographers said that Leo was the Nemean lion killed by Heracles during his first labor. The constellation of Leo consists of 27 formed stars and 8 unformed ones. The latter are the two over the back of Leo, the three under the belly and in front of the hind legs, and the three above the tail between Leo and Virgo and Ursa Major. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-asad (the constellation of the lion). A larger lion was seen in this region of the sky in the Bedouin tradition, only part of which overlaps with the Ptolemaic Leo. The star on the mouth farthest from the ecliptic is labeled mankhar al-asad (the nose of the lion [κ Leonis]). The star near the eyes is labeled ra’s al-asad al-shimālī (the northern head of the lion [μ Leo, Rasalas]), and another one nearby is labeled ra’s al-asad al-janūbī (the southern head of the lion [ε Leo, Algenubi]). The very large star of the two contiguous ones on the upper part of the lower forearm is termed qalb al-asad (the heart of the lion [α Leo]). This first magnitude star was also called al-malakī (the royal one) from Ptolemy’s term βασιλίσκος (a little king), hence its modern name Regulus. The large star on the rump is labeled ẓahr al-asad (the back of the lion [δ Leo]). All of these star names reflect the Greek leonine outline transposed over the larger Arab one. The star in the tail, however, is titled ṣarfah [β Leo, Denebola], which reflects the Bedouin tradition, according to al-Ṣūfī and al-Bīrūnī because of the change in the weather from heat with its rising at dawn before the sun and the change from cold weather with its setting at dawn. As part of the image of the larger lion of the Bedouin tradition, this star was called “the seed of the lion” (qanb al-asad) according to al-Ṣūfī, who added by way of explanation “that is to say, his scrotum” (wi‘ā qaḍībi-hi).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Lepus Constellation 37 - al-arnab - The Hare According to Emilie Savage-Smith, beneath the feet of Orion is the hare, continually pursued by the hunter (Orion) and his dog (Sirius) which is to the east of Lepus. The mythographers said that Hermes placed the hare among the constellations because of its swiftness. Hyginus gives the account of the extreme multiplication of the hares on the Island of Leros, after which the constellation was placed in the heavens so men could remember “that nothing is so desirable in life but that later they might experience more grief than pleasure from it”. The Ptolemaic name of the constellation was translated literally into Arabic as ṣūrat al-arnab, or kawākib al-arnab (the constellation of the hare) as it is labeled on the Manuchihr globe. The constellation is composed of 12 formed stars and no unformed ones. The modern name of the star on the front shoulder, α Leporis, is Arneb or Alarneb, from the Arabic name for the constellation.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Libra Constellation 28 - al-mīzān - The Balance Savage-Smith states that in Greek times, as in much earlier Sumerian times, the constellation now known as Libra was seen as the two claws of the scorpion, with Scorpio and Libra combined essentially into one constellation. The concept of the asterism as a balance or scales, which was a later introduction, calls to mind the equality of day and night at the autumnal equinox, which occurs at the break between the House of Virgo and the House of Libra. Hyginus states “this sign is divided into two parts on account of the great spread of the claws. One part of it our writers have called the Balance. But the whole constellation together was put in the sky, it is said, for the following reasons”. He then recounts that Orion boasted he could kill anything on earth. Earth, angered at this, sent the Scorpion, which is said to have killed him. Zeus then placed Scorpio in the heavens as a lesson to men not to be too self-confident. Artemis, who had suffered an insult from Orion, requested Zeus that it be placed so that when Scorpio rises, Orion sets. On the Manuchihr globe the name of the constellation is kawākib al-mīzān (the constellation of the balance). The names of stars in Libra all reflect the Greek tradition. The large star in the pan to the north is labeled kiffah al-shimālī (the northern plate of the balance [β Librae]). The large star on the other pan is termed kiffah al-janūbī (the southern plate of the balance [α 1, 2 Librae]). Libra is composed of eight formed stars and nine unformed ones. The latter group consists of the pair, one on either side of the lines suspending the northern pan, the pair on either side of the northern claw of Scorpio, one in front of the mouth of Scorpio, one at the suspensory device, the pair, one on either side of the southern claw of Scorpio, and the large star to the south of Libra.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Lupus Constellation 45 - al-saba‘ - The Wild Beast The animal held by the centaur constitutes a separate constellation. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is titled kawākib al-saba‘ (the constellation of the wild beast), being a direct translation of the Greek θηρίον. According to Emilie Savage-Smith, al-Ṣūfī says of this constellation “there are 18 stars, but Ptolemy says there are 19”. The star numbered 11 in the constellation, he continues, is according to the Almagest the southern of the 3 in the end of the tail, “but there is no star there which the vision perceives”. Yet here again al-Ṣūfī included the eleventh star in his catalog, noting that he could not observe it. Similarly, Ulugh Beg stated in the introduction to his catalog that he was going to eliminate the eleventh star of Lupus, but in fact he included it in the catalog just as his predecessor al-Ṣūfī had done. In the Bedouin tradition the constellations of the Centaur and the Wild Beast were viewed together as one, and indeed al-Ṣūfī treats Centaurus and Lupus together in his discussions. Al-Ṣūfī states that the Arabs traditionally called the stars of Centaurus and Lupus collectively al-shamārikh (the vine branches loaded with fruit, or a cluster of grapes or dates). He adds that they resemble al-shamārikh “because of their multitude and the thickness of all of them”.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Lyra Constellation 8 - al-shulyāq - The Lyre The Arabic title of this constellation engraved on the Manuchihr globe, kawākib al-shulyāq, may be derived from the Greek word χέλυς, meaning tortoise. According to Emilie Savage-Smith, since the lyre was made by stretching seven strings on a tortoise shell which then acted as a sounding board, χέλυς came to mean lyre. Aratus speaks of the tortoise, which Hermes pierced for strings and named the lyre, and was placed by Aratus as a constellation between the Bird (Cygnus) and the forward knee of Kneeling Man. Al-Ṣūfī says it is the constellation al-lurā, a transliteration of the Greek word and adds that it is also called al-shulyāq, al-sanj (a Persian word for cymbals or brass castanets), al-mi‘zaf (a triangular harp with seven strings equivalent, al-iwāzz (a goose), and al-sulahfāt (a tortoise). The exact origin of the word shulyāq seems uncertain. It is possible it arose a misunderstanding and incorrect writing of sulahfāt. In any case it appears that the meaning of the word as a musical instrument was soon lost, for on the Manuchihr globe it is merely a decorative urn. Some illustrations of al-Ṣūfī manuscripts depict it as an urn, while others show it as a tortoise. The constellation is composed of 10 formed stars. Only one star is labeled on the Manuchihr globe, Vega [α Lyrae], the fifth brightest star of the heavens. It is the lower (westernmost) star, at the vertex of the triangle of stars on the northern side, indicated by a slightly larger silver dot. It is labeled al-wāqi‘ (the falling [eagle]), the Vega being a corrupt transliteration of wāqi‘ (falling).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Ophiuchus & Serpens Constellations 13 & 14 - al-hawwā’ & al-ḥayyah - The Serpent Charmer and the Serpent Aratus described the serpent-holder (Ophiuchus) as having his head toward the north, near that of “the phantom” (Hercules), with his feet trampling a monster (Scorpio). He notes that the stars on his shoulders gleam brightly while those on this hands are dimmer. Ophiuchus clutches in his two hands the serpent which is coiled a little about his eastern hand but is greatly coiled above his western hand with its jaw turned toward Corona Borealis. Later mythographers identified Ophiuchus with Asclepius and so with the art of healing. On Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-hawwā’ (the constellation of the serpent charmer), which consists of 24 formed stars and 5 unformed ones. The large star in the head is labeled ra’s al-hawwā’ (the head of the serpent charmer), from which we get the modern name Ras Alhague [α Ophiuchi]. Al-Ṣūfī uses the term and considers it an astrolabe star. Another star labeled is kalb al-rā‘ī (the shepherd’s dog), which is mentioned by al-Ṣūfī, and reflects a Bedouin tradition, although no source but mentions it. The serpent is titled kawākib al-ḥayyah (the Constellation of the Serpent) and consists of 18 formed stars, corresponding with the number in the catalogs. A star is labeled ‘unuq al-ḥayyah (the neck of the serpent) and it is mentioned by al-Ṣūfī. The modern name of the star is Unuk, clearly derived from ‘unq (neck).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Orion Constellation 35 - al-jabbār - The Giant According to Emilie Savage-Smith, the second southern constellation is Orion, who for the most part lies north of the celestial equator. The equator passes through the three stars forming the well-known belt of Orion, Orion was one of the five star groups named by Homer and was perhaps the first constellation to which a Greek legend was assigned. Traditionally he was a great hunter, eventually killed by Artemis, according to Homer, or as another tradition has it, by a scorpion (Scorpio) sent by her. Aratus does not describe the figure of Orion, but merely says “Let none who pass him spread out on high on a cloudless night imagine that, gazing on the heavens, one shall see other stars more fair”. Ptolemy described him as he was usually depicted in Greek art: holding in his right hand a staff for flinging at hares (although also used for a shepherd’s staff or crook); a short bent sword or dagger hung from his waist; and a lion’s skin was draped over his left arm. He was also depicted as kneeling in a manner similar to Hercules. Al-Ṣūfī describes the constellation as “resembling somewhat the form of a man having a head, two upper-arms and two feet; and he is called al-jabbār (the giant) because he has two thrones [a reference to groups of stars in Lepus and Eridanus] and in his hand there is a stick and around his middle a sword”. On the Manuchihr globe Orion can be seen between and below Taurus and Gemini. The constellation is titled kawākib al-jabbār (the constellation of the giant). The constellation of Orion is comprised of 38 formed stars and no unformed stars. The traditional Bedouin term for the region was al-jawzā’. The very large star on the eastern shoulder on the Manuchihr globe is given a name: mankib al-yumnā (the right shoulder). The star referred to is [α Orionis], a variable star that is the twelfth brightest star of the heavens. The modern name of the star, Betelgeuse, arose from another name for the star, ibṭ al-jawzā’ (armpit of al-jawzā’). The larger of the two stars next to each other on the west shoulder is labeled mankib al-yusrā [γ Ori, Belletrix]. The large star on the western foot of Orion, which is shared with the River Eridanus into which the figure is stepping, is labeled rijl al-yusrā (the left foot). This star [β Ori, Rigel] is the seventh brightest of the heavens; it was also called by al-Ṣūfī rā‘ī al-jawzā’ (the shepherd of al-jawzā’). The star on the knee on which he is resting is labeled rijl al-yumnā. The modern name of the star, Saiph [κ Ori], is derived from the name given by al-Ṣūfī to the three stars [c θ1,2 ι Ori] composing the dagger, sayf al-jabbār (the sword of the giant), which is also labeled, a name clearly derived after the introduction of the Ptolemaic constellations. The Bedouin term for these three stars was al-jawzā’. Two of the stars, θ1,2 ι Ori, comprise the asterism known today as the Sword of Orion. The three stars forming the famous asterism of the Belt of Orion, δεζ Ori, were called in Greek χἀριτες (the [three] Graces). one of the three stars is labeled minṭaqat al-jawzā’ (the belt of al-jawzā’), from which the modern name of δ Ori, Mintaku, is derived.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Pegasus Constellation 19 - al-faras al-a‘ẓam - The Larger Horse Aratus wrote of this constellation after describing Andromeda. Later mythographers associated the horse with Pegasus, the offspring of Poseidon and the Gorgon Medusa and the horse used by Bellerophon, as well as with Melanippe, who was the daughter of Chiron the Centaur, who when born was placed in the skies by the gods so that Chiron (Centaurus) could not see her and with only half a body so that her sex could not be determined. Aratus had not mentioned wings, and Eratosthenes notes that Pegasus’s flight is unbelievable since it has no wings. But by Ptolemy’s time wings were clearly a part of the constellation. In Arabic this Ptolemaic front half of a winged horse is most frequently called al-faras al-a‘ẓam (the larger horse). It was also known as al-faras al-mujannaḥ (the winged horse). It consists of 20 formed stars. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-faras al-a‘ẓam (the constellation of the larger horse). The bright star on its nostril [ε Pegasi] is labeled fam al-faras (the mouth of the horse). This star is also called anf al-faras (the nose of the horse), whose modern name Enif is derived from the Arabic word for nose. The star at the upper edge of the wing [α Peg] is labeled matn al-faras (side of the horse). The star near the join of wing and lower leg [β Peg] is labeled mankib al-faras (shoulder of the horse). The star in the southeast corner of the body [γ Peg, Algenib] is named jināḥ al-faras (wing of the horse), while the one shared with the head of Andromeda [δ Peg or α Andromedae, Sirrah] is labeled surrat al-faras (navel of the horse, the source of the modern name).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Perseus Constellation 11 - al-barsha’us - the Bearer of the Ogre’s Head According to Greek tradition Perseus was the son by Zeus of Danae who, because her father had been told by an oracle that his grand-son would kill him, had been set adrift on the sea with her son. They were taken in by King Polydectes, who years later contrived to send Perseus to fetch the head of the Gorgon Medusa. The Gorgons were three hideous sisters, of whom only Medusa was mortal; snakes grew on their heads instead of hair, and anyone who beheld them was turned to stone. With the aid of Athena, Perseus beheaded Medusa and carried off her head, holding it by the snakes. When the blood dripping from the head fell to earth it gave rise to Pegasus, another constellation. Before returning to King Polydectes Perseus rescued Andromeda from the sea monster Cetus and married her. The Greek name Perseus is transliterated as Barsha’us. The figure holds by the hair the mustachioed head of a male demon, while in the hand raised over his head he wields a knife. The constellation on the Manuchihr globe is labeled kawākib al-barsha’us (the constellation of Perseus), and consists of 26 formed stars and 3 unformed stars. The star on his chest is labeled janb al-Barsha’us (Perseus’ side). Near the ghoul’s head is written ra’s al-ghūl (head of the ghoul), which is intended to refer to the largest star in the head, [β Persi, Algol]. Near the wrist and the knife there is written mi‘ṣam which refers to mi‘ṣam al-thurayyā (the wrist of al-thurayyā). Al-thurayyā is significant in the early Bedouin tradition and its terminology also superimposed the Ptolemaic image of Perseus. This concept of a large female figure named al-thurayyā determines the labeling of all the other stars in this constellation. The Pleiades were seen as the head of a woman whose upper arm stretched out through Perseus with her open hand with finger tips stained with henna forming the constellation Cassiopeia. With this configuration in mind, the star (or pair of open star clusters) is called the wrist of al-thurayyā. The two stars in the lower foot are titled ‘ātiq al-thurayyā (the shoulder-blade of al-thurayyā), and the star on the shin-bone of the back leg is labeled mankib al-thurayyā (the shoulder of al-thurayyā).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Pisces Constellation 33 - al-samakatayn - The Fish Savage-Smith states the concept of water dominates again this area of the zodiac as it had with the preceding sign, Aquarius. The fishes, Aratus says are placed one higher, more to the north, than the other and thus it louder hears the fresh rush of the north wind. From both there stretch, as it were, chains, whereby their tails on either side are joined. The meeting chains are knit by a single beautiful and great star, which is called the Knot of the Tails. Let the left shoulder of Andromeda be the guide to the northern Fish, for it is very near. Mythographers relate the story that Venus and her son Cupid came to the river Euphrates in Syria where the monster Typhon appeared. They both threw themselves into the river and became fishes. For this reason the Syrians stopped eating fish for fear they would seem to oppose the protection of the gods and so they would not catch the gods themselves. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation bears the title kawākib al-samakatayn (the constellation of the Two Fishes), engraved under the head of the western fish. This is the common title for both the constellation and zodiacal house and is the traditional Bedouin term for the region which replaced the term al-samakatayn (the two fishes), which had been used to translate the Ptolemaic title. Clearly the Bedouin image was of one large fish in this area, no doubt deriving from a Babylonian image which was also the source for the two fishes of the Greek world. According to the star catalogs the constellation consists of 34 formed stars. The constellation also has four unformed stars, two of which are in the ecliptic beneath the western fish and two just south of the ecliptic near the tip of the tail of Cetus. No star in Pisces on the Manuchihr globe is labeled. There is written near the chest of Andromeda baṭn al-ḥūt (the belly of the fish). This term refers to the star on Andromeda’s waist closest to Pisces [β Andromedae, Mirach], and arose from a Bedouin conception of a large fish lying across the area of Andromeda. This star gives its name to the twenty-eighth lunar mansion, and as such was also called in the anwā’ tradition al-rishā’ (the rope). The prominent star mentioned by Aratus as the Knot of the Tails is probably the third in the band between the fishes, counting from the eastern fish. This star [α Piscium] was called by al-Ṣūfī ‘aqd al-khayṭayn (the knot of the two ties) from the Ptolemaic image. Though it is the brightest star of the constellation, it does not seem to have had as important a role in Bedouin terminology, for it bears no traditional Arab name and is not labeled on any globes. The modern name for the star is El Rischa, from the name of Lunar Mansion 28. Arab astronomers and writers of anwā’ literature, however, did not use this term for α Piscium, but only for β Andromedae, where it does not mean a knot, but a rope, arising from the conception of a bucket in nearby Pegasus.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Piscis Austrinus Constellation 48 - al-samkah al-janūbīyah - The Southern Fish According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus says that below Capricorn “before the blasts of the South wind swims a Fish, facing Cetus, alone and apart from the former Fishes; and him men call the Southern Fish. Mythographers recounted a legend in which Isis, when she was in labor, was saved by a fish and as a reward for this kindness she placed the fish and its young (the two fishes of Pisces) in the heavens. Hyginus adds that for this reason the Syrians do not eat fish, and worship the gilded images of fish as house-hold gods. On the Manuchihr globe the fish is labeled kawākib al-samakah al-janūbīyah (the constellation of the Southern Fish), a translation of the classical Greek title. The fish itself contains 11 formed stars, not counting the large one in the mouth at the end of the water, and such is the numbering given by al-Ṣūfī and Ulugh Beg in their catalogs. Ptolemy, however, counted the one in the mouth in with those of the Southern Fish, even though he had already numbered it with those of Aquarius. Thus al-Ṣūfī lists 11, while Ptolemy had 12. Ptolemy also recorded six unformed stars. Al-Ṣūfī stated that he could not observe them, but apparently not wishing to overthrow completely the authority of Ptolemy, he nonetheless included them in his catalog of stars at the end of his discussion of the Southern Fish. He clearly labeled this section of the catalog with the statement that these six stars were taken from the Almagest. Ulugh Beg on the other hand went ahead and eliminated them from his catalog. On the Manuchihr globe the star in the mouth of the fish is titled Fam al-ḥūt. The star is called today Fomalhaut [α PsA].

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Sagitta Constellation 15 - al-sahm - The Arrow Aratus says that above Sagittarius, the archer, is an arrow alone without a bow. The arrow has been associated with the legend of Hercules killing the eagle gnawing the liver of Prometheus. In the Islamic world the name was usually translated sahm (arrow). On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-sahm (the constellation of the Arrow), and consists of five stars in a nearly straight line. No stars are greater than fourth magnitude, and none bear special names.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Sagittarius Constellation 30 - al-rāmī - The Archer In Greek literature the Archer was frequently represented as a centaur, although this is not mentioned by Aratus, who says merely that when the sun scorches the bow and the archer it is a time of storm; the sailor should not sail at night but put into shore in the evening. This is one of the zodiacal signs that is probably of Babylonian origin. The Babylonian archer was depicted with wings, which in Greek times became a mantle or cloak. In Islamicate representations of the Ptolemaic constellation, there is usually a fluttering end of a head band or band of a turban, while al-Bīrūnī says he has long tresses. The mythographers noted that while some called it a Centaur others did not because centaurs did not use arrows. The legend given was that he was Crotus, son of Euphene, nurse of the Muses. He was very clever in the arts, for which reason the Muses requested Zeus to represent him in a star group. Zeus added the arrow to represent his keenness. The title of the constellation on the Manuchihr globe is kawākib al-rāmī (the constellation of the archer). The star in the eye is labeled ‘ayn al-rāmī (the eye of the archer) and was considered nebulous [ν1,2 Sgr]. The star near the hoof of the lower front leg is labeled ‘urqūb al-rāmī (the archer’s tendon) [β1,2 Sgr]. Al-Ṣūfī says this important star was placed on astrolabes even though it is less than fourth magnitude, correcting Ptolemy’s magnitude of two. The star on the knee of the same leg is labeled rukbat al-rāmī (the archer’s knee [α Sgr]); Al-Ṣūfī also corrects its magnitude. The star at the southern tip of the bow [ε Sgr; Kaus Aust] is labeled zujj al-sahm (arrowhead).

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Scorpius Constellation 29 - al-‘aqrab - The Scorpion According to Emilie Savage-Smith, in ancient Mesopotamia a large scorpion in this region of the heavens was apparently associated with the darkness which comes on as the year approaches the winter solstice, and it is one of the most frequently depicted zodiacal signs extant in Babylonian remains. In Greek literature it was called “scorpion”. The Ptolemaic Scorpio in the star catalog covers a smaller area than the original scorpion asterism of Sumerian origin, for the constellation Libra was formed from part of the larger scorpion. The mythographers associated with it the legend of the scorpion sent by Artemis to kill Orion. The Greek word for scorpion was translated by the common Arabic word ‘aqrab, also meaning scorpion, as evidenced in the title of the constellation written on the Manuchihr globe kawākib al-‘aqrab (the constellation of the scorpion). On the globe the constellation is composed of 21 formed stars and three unformed ones as cataloged by Ptolemy, al-Ṣūfī and Ulugh Beg. A star is labeled qalb al-‘aqrab (heart of the scorpion) which was the traditional Arab name given the bright red star called by Ptolemy “Antares and is used as the name of the star today. The two stars on the tip of the tail were called al-shawlah (the raised tail [of the scorpion]) and formed the nineteenth lunar mansion [λν Sco; Shaula].

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Taurus Constellation 23 - al-thawr - The Bull According to Aratus the Bull, ταυρος, is found crouching at the feet of the charioteer and with whom Taurus shares a star. Aratus adds that the Bull’s head is well marked by the group of stars called the Hyades. This star group was one of the ones mentioned by Homer as were the Pleiades, which are also in Taurus. The legend of Europa and the bull was commonly linked to this constellation. In the star group of the Hyades, Hesiod names only five stars: Phaisule, Koronis, Klaeia, Phaio, and Eudora, and for him their cosmical setting was a time for ploughing. Later mythographers counted seven Hyades and made them nymphs who nursed Dionysus. They were named Eudora, Ambrosia, Koronis, Pedile, Polyxo, Phyto, and Thyone. They were also said to be sisters who cried themselves to death when their brother Hyas was killed hunting. The word ὑάδες (Hyades) is according to some derived from ὑέιν (to rain), although others give an alternative derivation from ὑς (swine), since it was sometimes thought to be a sow with four young. Cicero says the word comes from hyein, for they bring rain “while our nation stupidly names them the Suckling-pigs, as though the same Hyades were derived from the word for ‘pig’ and not from 'rain'”. In Islamic representations only the first half of a charging bull is depicted, following Ptolemy’s description. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-thawr (the constellation of the Bull). The constellation consists of 32 formed stars for Taurus and 11 unformed stars, one near the western hoof of the bull (in the line of single degree graduations of the equator), two above the head of Orion whose figure is beneath the bull’s horns, and eight between the horns, extending into the line of the ecliptic. The largest star of the five on the head is labeled al-dabarān, which is also known as ‘ayn al-thawr (the eye of the bull). It was numbered fourteenth in Taurus and is the thirteenth brightest star in the heavens [α Tauri, Aldebaran]. Al-Ṣūfī says it is a bright red large star traditionally called al-dabarān from a root meaning “to follow”, because it followed the Pleiades, adding that al-dabarān is the name of the fourth lunar mansion and is used on astrolabes; says Emilie Savage-Smith.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Triangulum Constellation 21 - al-muthallath - The Triangle The fications, consists of four stars. Aratus called it δελτωτὀυ, and mythographers suggested that Hermes placed it above the head of Aries so that its brightness would mark the dimness of Aries and so that its triangular shape would form the first letter of the name for Zeus (Δίς, an older form of Ζεύς). The constellation is labeled kawākib al-muthallath, (the constellation of the triangle). The star at the top of the triangle is called ra’s al-muthallath (the apex of the triangle [α Trianguli]. Al-Ṣūfī adds that this star, together with the most northerly of the three at the base, were traditionally called al-anīsān (the two friends) [αβ Tri].

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Ursa Major Constellation 2 - al-dubb al-akbar - The Greater Bear This constellation is the best known of all constellations, for a brilliant part of it forms what is known in our time as the Big Dipper. This latter asterism, however, forms only a part of the area covered by the Greater Bear. Because of the prominence of this area of the heavens, several different images have been superimposed upon the region. Homer speaks of the Bear “which men also call the Wagon which ever circles where it is”. Hyginus presented the legend that it was a companion of Artemis named Callisto who became pregnant by Zeus and was changed into a bear by Artemis. The oldest and most persistent image in the Arabic world is that of a bier or corpse-bearing plank, formed by the four bright stars in the bowl of our Dipper, followed by three mourning daughters (the three stars of the tail or Dipper handle). Since the Greek image of the Bear is superimposed over the Bedouin bier, the constellation on the Manuchihr globe is titled Kawākib al-dubb al-akbar (constellation of the Larger Bear) written along the back. The individual names of the four stars forming the square reflect the Ptolemaic image of the bear. Thus the one in the middle of the back is labeled ẓahr al-dubb al-akbar (the back of the Greater Bear [α UMa, Dubhe]); at the base of the tail the star is named maghriz al-dubb (base of the bear [δ UMa, Megrez]); the one immediately below is called fakhdh al-dubb (thigh of the bear [γ UMa, Phecda]); and the star in the stomach is called mirāq al-dubb (loin of the bear [β UMa, Merak]). The names of the stars in the tail arise from the Bedouin tradition. The first star of the tail is called al-jawn (the black horse [ε UMa, Alioth]). The large star in the middle of the tail is called al-‘anāq (the goat [UMa, Mizar]) and the last star of the tail is al-qā’id (the leader [η UMa, Alkaid]), possibly being viewed as the leader of the funeral train. Another Bedouin image is reflected in the designation of the twin stars in each of the three prominently depicted feet of the Bear, These stars are labeled, beginning with the rear paw, al-qafzah al-ulā (the first leap) al-qafzah al-thāniyah (the second leap) and al-qafzah al-thālithah (the third leap) [νξλμικ UMa, respectively], and refer to the image of a deer or gazelle running before a lion. Each pair of stars was so named because they resembled the track of a deer’s cloven hoof. The maker wrote the name “the third leap” in front of the front legs, perhaps intending for it to refer to the two stars above those in the lower front paw. The maker of the globe may not have understood the image of the deer, for the term for “leap” is actually incised as al-faqrah “vetebra” (a difference of two diacritical points over the word). The constellation is composed of 27 formed stars. There are eight unformed stars, five grouped beneath the bear, with one isolated in front of the front paw and two beneath the tail.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Ursa Minor Constellation 1 - al-dubb al-aṣghar - The Lesser Bear The Lesser Bear, like the Greater Bear, was called both a bear and a wagon in Greek times, the latter probably being the older image. One can easily observe our asterism of the Little Dipper in the seven formed stars comprising the constellation. The Lesser Bear does not appear in Homer. Aratus recounts the story of Zeus having as a child been hidden and nurtured by two bears, the other being the Greater Bear, for which he rewarded them by placing them in the heavens. He also says that the constellation is called the Cynosura (dog’s tail) as well, and that the Phoenicians sailed by the Lesser Bear, while the Greeks steered by the Greater Bear. In the Islamic world the Lesser Bear was also used as a guide in travel. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labelled Kawākib al-dubb al-aṣghar (constellation of the Lesser Bear). The constellation has in addition to seven formed stars, one unformed one beneath the stomach of the Lesser Bear. In the Bedouin tradition a bier or corpse-bearing plank with three accompanying mourning daughters was also seen here, parallel with the image seen in the Greater Bear. This traditional image was called banāt na‘sh al-sughrā (the smaller form of the daughters of the bier), the bier being the four stars in the square [βγξη Ursa Minoris] and the daughters the three in the tail [εδα Ursa Minoris]. Two calves were also seen by the Arabs as belonging to the bier, which al-Ṣūfī identified as the two bright stars of the square, those on the shoulder and front leg [nos. 7 and 6; γβ UMi], respectively. On the Manuchihr globe the stars in the constellation are labeled akhfā al-farqadayn (the more obscure of the two calves) and anwar al-farqadayn (the brighter of the two calves). The terms appear in al-Ṣūfī’s text and catalog as well as other writings, such as those of Ulugh Beg.

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Virgo Constellation 27 - al-‘adhrā’ - The Maiden In Hellenistic times this constellation was described as a maiden (Virgo in Latin), with wings, holding in her hand an ear of wheat (Spica in Latin). Aratus adds that she was also called “Justice” and dwelt on earth until the coming of the Bronze Age when she ascended to the heavens. In her role as Justice she was later associated with the Scales (Libra). The association of an ear of wheat with a maiden was also a symbol of the harvest, and indeed the autumnal equinox occurs in this sign. Mythographers associated various figures with the maiden, including Demeter (because of the wheat) and Erigone, daughter of Icarus. The Arabic translation of the Greek word was al-‘adhrā’, but the Bedouin name for the region soon replaced it in the literature. Thus al-sunbulah (the ear of wheat), probably of ancient Sumerian origin, became the standard name for the constellation and the zodiacal house. Al-Bīrūnī describes the Ptolemaic figure as “in the form of a maid with two wings, in a flowing skirt and in her hand an ear or two of wheat directed to the bottom of her skirt”. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-‘adhrā’ (the constellation of Virgo) and is depicted with wings, with her northern arm extending toward Boötes with an ear of wheat in her lower hand. It is composed of 26 formed stars and six unformed ones. The latter are the three along the southern arm (in the large graduated portion of the ecliptic) and the three south of the southern hand on the other side of the ecliptic. There is a star which is labeled simāk a‘zal (an unarmed simāk). The name simāk is of ancient possibly Babylonian origin and its meaning has been obscured with time. In the Bedouin tradition this simāk represents one of the hind legs of the very large lion. The other hind leg of the lion was formed by the other star bearing the name al-simāk, Arcturus al-simāk al-rāmiḥ, which can be seen in a direct line due north of Spica, at the hemline of Boötes. Of the star called simāk in Virgo, al-Ṣūfī says: They call it al-a‘zal (unarmed) because it is opposite al-simāk al-rāmiḥ which is called rāmiḥ (armed) because the lance (rumḥ) is on its right; and these are two bright stars [both called simāk], one of which is near the foot of the Howler [Boötes], whom they call the ox-driver, and the other one is in the zodiac and is called “unarmed” because there is no weapon accompanying it. The “unarmed simāk” in Virgo gave its name to the fourteenth lunar mansion. The large star in the northern wing was called in Greek “the vintager” (in Latin, Vindemiatrix), but bears no traditional Bedouin name and seems not to have been as important to Bedouin imagery; says Emilie Savage-Smith.

The 48 classical constellations are depicted on the Manuchihr globe. Each constellaion is labelled using the relatively unusual term kawākib for ‘constellation’ instead of the common ṣūrah, for instance; kawākib al-‘adhrā’ for Virgo, kawākib al-asad for Leo, kawākib al-dubb al-aṣghar for Ursa Minor, or kawākib al-samakatayn for the constellation Pisces (but burj-i hūt for the zodiacal sign of Pisces). There are approximately 1022 stars + 3 in Coma Berenices, visible above northern hand of Virgo. It is not clear whether the ‘overlooked’ star in the tail of Ursa Major has been included or not, for the area appears to be damaged. The stars are inlaid silver studs, with some attempt to differentiate the ‘size’ of stars by the size of the silver studs. They have been placed after the outlines of the constellation images. Approximately 50 stars are given individual names. While most of the iconography follows those that found on other recorded Islamic celestial globes, allowing for variation in regional depiction of clothing, there are some distinctive features found on this globe: Virgo (al-‘adhrā’), for example, faces South rather than North and has a rather unusual hair and clothing. Virgo also holds an ear of wheat in the southern hand with the star labelled simāk al-a‘zal, and while this is occasionally found on other globes, it is quite rare. Also, the three stars of Coma Berenices are visible above the northern hand of Virgo, and these also are relatively rare on globes. Corona Borealis (kawākib al-fakkah) is represented as a crescent moon, and this is most unusual, if not unique. Cetus (al-qītus) is unusually ornate in its depiction. Aquarius (sākib al-mā’) holds an unusual device from which he is pouring the water. Andromeda (al-mar’ah al-musalsalah), however, is the most unusual figure on this globe. The fact that the figure is viewed from behind suggests some European influence in the iconography, for Islamic depictions, and all recorded Islamic globes, show the figure frontally. There is no indication of the chains which should bind her feet together. It is in fact not clear whether this is a male or female figure. It has been drawn to a larger size than it should be, extending a bit too far north and south, although the stars in it remain more-or-less properly positioned. As a result of this elongation, for example, the star rijl al-musalsalah (the foot of the chained woman) is placed at the back of the left knee rather than on the foot, as it is on other globes. Moreover, the torso of Andromeda overlaps with the face of the northern fish of the constellation Pisces (al-samakatayn, al-ḥūt), whereas the fish should be just nestled up to the side of Andromeda. The quality of workmanship displayed in this globe is of the highest quality. There are only two other recorded Safavid celestial globes that have a full set of constellation images, and these were both also made in Mashhad, by Muhammad Zamān in 1050 AH (1640-41 AD) and 1054 AH (1644-45 AD). The former is now in the V&A (inv. no. M. 827-1928) while the latter was last recorded as being in a private collection in Kuwait (photographs were available in 1980). Although also made in Mashhad, the design of these globes by Muhammad Zamān, the depictions of the constellation images and the methods of engraving, are strikingly different from the Manuchihr globe. Consequently, we now have evidence of two major workshops of instrument-makers active in Mashhad in the first half of the 17th century. About the Manuchihr globe Prof. Dr. Sonja Brentjes says: “The re-surfacing of this splendid specimen of a celestial globe is a marvellous gift to all who are seriously interested in intellectual history of post-Mongol Islamicate societies and in particular of the Safavid dynasty. It illustrates that education, politics, art patronage, artisanal and artistic excellence had formed a strong bond. This unification of a broad range of cultural activities in the courtly spheres of the Ilkhanids, Timurids, Mughals, Ottomans, Safavids and other Muslim dynasties provided the context for the creation of a scholarly tradition of the mathematical sciences, astrology, philosophy, medicine and the so-called occult sciences that thrived as a program of elite education, luxurious display of power and wealth and as a culture of gift-giving and political rivalry. Claims to scientific excellence in this cultural function of the sciences serve for binding the sciences to the other mentioned expressions of excellence, but do not necessarily literally reflect a culture of scientific research practice as stated in the preface of Qa‘īnī’s Persian translation of ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī’s work on star constellations. Both the globe and the two illustrated manuscript copies of Qa‘īnī’s translation encourage us, however, to spend more time with them and investigate their claims, mastership and affiliations to earlier Ilkhanid and Timurid works of the same genre. They also invite us to rethink the history of the sciences in the Safavid period and to dedicate the same kind of careful study to such specimens of scholarly knowledge and cultural practice as we have done so successfully in the last decades with regard to prime specimens of scientific innovation and excellence created in Islamicate societies of the classical period between India and the Iberian Peninsula. It would be wonderful if the private owners of such impressive pieces reflecting the rich cultural past of the sciences in Islamicate societies would support us in this task and share their collections generously with the academic world and the public.” One of the illustrations in the manuscript of al-Qa‘īnī that has drawn the attention of art historians is the Sagittarius (al-rāmi). It is supposed to be Manuchihr’s portrait. This was suggested because of the specific features of his turban and face ‘in the guise of a bearded Safavid official’, see: Schmitz, 1992, p.127 and fig. 124. The illustration of this constellation in the Spencer manuscript shows many features akin to the figure on the Manuchihr globe. Indeed the face is similar, the figure seems to portray an official with flowing scarves and a waistband covering the join of the animal and the human forms like in the Spencer manuscript. This zodiacal sign has additional significations. In fact, according to Jalāl al-Dīn Munajjim, Abbas I transformed Isfahan to the Empire’s new capital around the beginning of Safar 1000 (mid November 1591), which falls under the sign of Sagittarius. The choice of this sign to portray Manuchihr Khan could be explained by his wish to invoke a parallel between Shah Abbas I and himself. The portrayal of Manuchihr Khan as Sagittarius may also indicate his own birth sign, which would have linked him to Isfahan, the new centre of the Safavid cultural, political and religious power. See: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.129 and note 61, p.188. Manuchihr Khan’s command to update, translate and illustrate al-Ṣūfī’s treatise, along with our celestial globe, certainly involved a group of the most important artists, who either were permanently staffed at the the governor’s library or may have been employed for the project, see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.129. Both the globe and the two magnificent manuscripts confirm that Manuchihr Khan was a leading art patron, with a strong curiosity and interest in astronomy. They demonstrate the importance of Mashhad as an art production centre producing prestigious and crowning achievements. The Manuchihr globe Cast in two hemispheres, seam at right angles to ecliptic, passing through Boötes (al-‘awwā’), visible from inside as well. The seam is well done and not very visible from the surface. The ecliptic and the equator are indicated by... Cast in two hemispheres, seam at right angles to ecliptic, passing through Boötes (al-‘awwā’), visible from inside as well. The seam is well done and not very visible from the surface. The ecliptic and the equator are indicated by single lines (great circles). These circles are not graduated, but they have small dots embossed along them, at approximately 1°-intervals. There are ecliptic-latitude-measuring circles. Holes have been drilled at both the ecliptic poles and the equatorial poles. A circular area has been removed from the globe, with the result that the head of the constellation Hydra (al-shujā‘) is now missing. There appears to be some surface staining and there is an area of abrasion near Ursa Major (al-dubb al-akbar) and above Virgo (al-‘adhrā’). Diameter: 26.5 cm. Weight: 5692 grams. A Persian inscription in a medallion beneath the south celestial pole, deeply engraved in an elegant nasta’liq reads as following: “Bi-rasmi ketabkhan-e navvab mustatab, Manuchihr Khan, mu’alla alqāb, khodayegani, Amir al-Umara-i beglarbegi, Mashhad muqaddas adāma Allah ta’āla ayyama dawlatihi wa ma’delat, bande ye-jani Hasan bin Sa’d al-Qa’ini, bittifāq nādir-i al-‘asr wa l-zamān, Ustadh Mālik Husayn Naqqāsh ve Rezvān Beg Zarneshan, dar shuhur sanat ghamj hijri be-etmām rasanid”. (By order of the library of the highly appreciated governor Manuchihr Khan, the noble, patronage of Prince of the Princes of Mashhad, God bless his government and his equity, the humble (slave): Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, with the uncontested rarity of the Era and the time: Master Malik Husayn Naqqash (the painter), and Rezvan Beg Zarneshan (the Silversmith/ Inlayer), finished in the months of the year ghamj hijri.) The date of the globe is indicated in abjad: غمج (AH 1043) which is unusual. According to Savage-Smith, all the globes made before the sixteenth century were dated in abjad letters, and those made in the sixteenth century and later are dated in standard numerals. The exceptions to this patterns are the Manuchihr globe and the anonymous globe made in 1056 AH/1646-47 AD, conserved in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore (Inv.54.712.), see: Savage-Smith, 1985, p.216 and cat.65, p.250. In the sixteenth century, the Safavid rulers were famous for their patronage of art. Mashhad gained even more recognition, becoming the most important city of the Greater Khurasan. Only very few celestial globes from the Safavid period are recorded, and only two, also made in Mashhad by Muhammad Zamān, have a full set of constellations, see: Savage-Smith, 1985, nos.16 and 17, p.226. The Commissioner of the globe is Abu al-Fatḥ Manuchihr Khan (d. 1636), son of Qarajaqhay Khan (d. 1623), a Safavid ghulam of Georgian origin who became a general and served Shah ‘Abbas I. Like his father, Manuchihr was established at Mashhad as the general and governor of Khurasan under Shah ‘Abbas I and Shah Ṣāfi (r. 1629-1642), see: Schmitz 1992, no.123, p.55 ; Robinson, Sims, Bayani, 2007, p.19. His brother Ali Quli Khan became prefect of Qom and head of the library of Shah ‘Abbas I. Manuchihr Khan’s son, Qarajaqhay Khan (d. 1668), became also a governor of Mashhad. All of them were among the Safavid cultural and intellectual elite, known as “men of knowledge and integrity’ (ahl-i fazl u kamāl) and “of illustrious acts and deeds” (ṣāhib-i mu'āṣir u asrār), see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.127. Manuchihr Khan commissioned one of the finest illustrated manuscripts of the period, a Persian translation of ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn 'Umar al-Ṣūfī’s Ṣuwar al-Kawākib al-Thābitah (the description of the fixed stars), copied between 1630-1633 and conserved in the New York Public Library collection (Spencer, Pers. Ms. 6), see: Schmitz, 1992, p.122. This manuscript was produced at the same period as our globe and involved the same Patron, astronomer and painter. In the preface of the Spencer Manuscript by the author Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī mentions that Manuchihr Khan was strongly interested in astronomy and that he commissioned the translation of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise into Persian. Al-Qa‘īnī was instructed to correct the measurements in the original copy of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise so that the longitude and latitude of the stars correspond to those seen in the year 1631. The manuscript was copied by Muhammad Baqir al-Hafiz. His name appears in several colophons dating between 1630 and 1632. According to al-Qa‘īnī, once the text was completed, every star or constellation was illustrated by one of Manuchihr Khan’s painters, Ustadh Mālik Husayn, referring to him as “the rarity of his time” (nadir al-asr), see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz- McCabe, Farhad, 2004, pp.127-128. Another translation into Persian of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise by Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, conserved in the Egyptian National Library in Cairo (CAIRO, Dar al-Kutub, MMF. 9), is dated 1633-34, see: King, 1986, Plate III; Edwards and Signell, p.13 and no.116, p.52. The illustrations in this copy are similar to the ones in the Spencer manuscript, suggesting that it has been produced in Mashhad, commissioned by Manuchihr Khan and illustrated by Ustadh Mālik Husayn or an artist familiar with him, see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.130. However, there is a discussion about the attribution of the paintings in both manuscripts, suggesting that most of them were executed by the son of Mālik Husayn, Muhammad Ali, rather than by the father, see: Brentjes, 2014, p.492. Ustadh Mālik Husayn (Isfahani) is an important painter of the Safavid court. He executed a group of paintings in the Windsor Shahname, one of the most famous 17th century manuscripts, see: Newman, 2006, p.90 ; Robinson, Sims, Bayani, 2007, figs. 1B and 1A, pp.24-25. The constellations’ figures on the globe show a high quality of execution and the same aesthetic characteristics as the miniatures in the Spencer manuscript. The illustrations in the Spencer manuscript are considered the most magnificent specimen of the Safavid period, see: Brentjes, 2014, pp.493-495. The famous painter Reza ‘Abbasi was still alive at this time suggesting that he directed the paintings executed by the artist in the Shah ‘Abbas court, see: Grube, 1962, pp.129- 130. Anthony Welch also considered that they are among the most beautiful illustrations found in scientific manuscripts, see: Welch, 1973, pp.76-77 and 82. The constellations’ figures on the globe are unusually large like the illustrations in the Spencer manuscript. They are stylistically typical of the paintings by the masters of the Safavid court and directed by Reza ‘Abbasi. The Menuchihr globe has the same aesthetic features with very skilfully executed figures. The metalwork craftsman is Rezvān Beg Zarneshan (Silversmith/Inlayer). He placed the stars with the silver points on the globe. The way the seam has been made and the high quality of the engraving on the globe suggest that Rezvān Beg was an important courtly artist and reflect a professional workshop of instrument makers. Provenance: Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, Malaya, bought in Mecca in 1327 AH / 1909 AD. His note book about the globe etc. written in Classic Malay with Jawi alphabet, which is no longer in use today in Malaysia, Page 1,... Provenance: Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, Malaya, bought in Mecca in 1327 AH / 1909 AD. His note book about the globe etc. written in Classic Malay with Jawi alphabet, which is no longer in use today in Malaysia, Page 1, reads: “Milik Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, sanah 1327 Catatan tentang kurah langit dan gambar-gambar bintang di langit” (Owned by Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, year 1327 AH Notes about a celestial globe and constellations in the sky) On Page 2-3 reads: “Kurah langit yang aku beli dari Makkah al-Mukarramah ini, aku belinya dari seorang Hindi dari Rajasthan bersama dengan sebiji kurah langit yang lain, juga lima buah buku Arab tulisan tangan tentang ilmu falak dan hisab. Kurah kangit ini dibuat untuk raja negeri mashhad di Faris, namanya Manouchihr Khan, pada tahun Ghayn Mim Jim. Huruf Ghayn itu bererti seribu, Mim itu bererti empatpuluh, Jim itu bererti tiga, mengikut nilai huruf hijaan Arab. Itu bererti kurah ini dibuat pada tahun 1043, iaitu dah lebih pada tiga ratus tahun. Kurah langit ini dilukis dan diguris dan dihias dengan perak. Adapun perak itu melaksanakan bintang- bintang di langit. Dan gambar-gambar di atas kurah itu bermacam-macam rupa, mengikut apa yang dicatat dalam buku Abdulrahman al-Sufi ….. ” (This celestial globe, which I bought in Makkah al-Mukarramah, I bought it from an Indian man from Rajasthan, together with another globe and five manuscripts written in Arabic on Astronomy and Mathematics. The globe was made for a ruler of Mashhad in Persia, whose name was Manouchihr Khan, in the year Ghayn Mim Jim. The letter Ghayn is 1000, Mim is forty and Jim is three, according to the values of the Arabic Abjad numerals. This means it was made in 1043, more than three hundred years ago. The celestial globe was drawn, engraved and decorated with silver. The silver dots represent stars in the sky, meanwhile the images on the surface of the globe are various as what have been registered in the book of al-Ṣūfī….)

Back to Manuchihr Globe

Everything on this particular site is a copy of https://themanuchihrglobe.tumblr.com/ I did not intend to steel any intellectual property. This is just meant as a backup to keep this valuable information availabe and to have it linked to my Star Lore Art site presenting images of the Manuchihr Globe. If you consider this a violation of copyright law, please contact me at judy-volker@judy-volker.com.

Back to Star Lore Start Page

Back to Art Start Page

Back to Space Page

Back to English Main Page

Back to Start Page